DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.10.1.2025.85-104

PROTEST VOTE: MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF SINGLE CANDIDATES IN LOCAL HEAD ELECTIONS

*Rizki Ramadani orcid scopus  -  Faculty of Law, Universitas Muslim Indonesia, Indonesia
Asriati Asriati  -  Faculty of Law, Universitas Muslim Indonesia, Indonesia
Wahida Wahida  -  Law School, University of Ankara, Turkey
Open Access Copyright (c) 2025 Diponegoro Law Review under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0.

Citation Format:
Abstract

In the 2024 local head elections, voters in 37 regions face a growing trend of single candidates. While voters can express dissent, the blank box option is often viewed as a mere procedural formality, with current regulations failing to address the negative impact of single candidates. This paper examines the protest vote as a form of voter engagement and explores its potential institutionalization as a solution to the single-candidate issue in local head elections. Using a normative approach, the research combines conceptual and legislative analysis, along with a qualitative review of existing literature. The protest vote, viewed from a political participation perspective, should not be seen as anti-political, but rather as a way for voters to voice dissatisfaction with the system or political elites. Few countries officially recognize the protest vote, but this study argues for its institutionalization through four measures: 1) ensuring the right to protest votes in local head elections, 2) recognizing blank, null, or spoiled ballots as valid votes, 3) defining empty boxes as "None of The Above" (NOTA) and preventing unsuccessful single candidates from re-running, and 4) protecting and encouraging campaigns for protest votes.

Fulltext View|Download
Keywords: Local Head Election; Protest Vote; Single Candidate; Voter Participation

Article Metrics:

Article Info
Section: Articles
Language : EN
Recent articles
GREENWASHING AS CONTRACTUAL FRAUD: EXAMINING ITS LEGAL IMPLICATIONS AND IMPACT ON CONTRACT VALIDITY UNDER INDONESIAN LAW PROTEST VOTE: MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF SINGLE CANDIDATES IN LOCAL HEAD ELECTIONS ANALYSIS OF EQUATORIAL STATES' SOVEREIGN RIGHTS OVER GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT UNDER OUTER SPACE TREATY More recent articles
Most cited articles
RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE PROVISION OF PEOPLE’S BUSINESS CREDIT AS IMPLEMENTATION OF PRUDENTIAL PRINCIPLES IMPLEMENTATION OF LEGAL PROTECTION BY THE GOVERNMENT IN ORDER TO EMPOWERMENT OF MICRO SMALL MEDIUM ENTERPRISE TO REALIZE THE JUSTICE ECONOMY (Research Study: The Office of Cooperative and Micro Small and Medium Enterprise Province of Central Java) JUSTICE A YEARNING IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONTRACT IN THE SOCIETY Index MANAGEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND REDEMPTION OF VILLAGE FUND More cited articles
  1. Altomonte, Carlo, Gloria Gennaro, and Francesco Passarelli. “Collective Emotions and Protest Vote.” SSRN Electronic Journal, no. January (2019). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3315401
  2. Alvarez, R. Michael, D. Roderick Kiewiet, and Lucas Núñez. “A Taxonomy of Protest Voting.” Annual Review of Political Science 21 (2018): 135–54. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-120425
  3. Aspinall, Edward, and Muhammad Uhaib As’ad. “Understanding Family Politics: Successes and Failures of Political Dynasties in Regional Indonesia.” South East Asia Research 24, no. 3 (2016): 420–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967828X16659571
  4. Aspinall, Edward, and Wawan Mas’Udi. “The 2017 Pilkada (Local Elections) in Indonesia: Clientelism, Programmatic Politics and Social Networks.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 39, no. 3 (2017): 417–26. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs39-3a
  5. Beetham, David. “Political Participation, Mass Protest and Representative Democracy.” Parliamentary Affairs 56, no. 4 (2003): 597-609+i+iv. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsg115
  6. Bernhagen, Patrick, and Michael Marsh. “Voting and Protesting: Explaining Citizen Participation in Old and New European Democracies.” Democratization 14, no. 1 (2007): 44–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340601024298
  7. Bharadwaj, Sanjay, and Joshua Eaton. “Constructing Democracy: The Underlying Factors That Create a Healthy Democracy.” Journal of Student Research 12, no. 1 (2023): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.47611/jsrhs.v12i1.4071
  8. Birch, Sarah, and James Dennison. “How Protest Voters Choose.” Party Politics 25, no. 2 (2019): 110–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068817698857
  9. Boulding, Carew. “NGOs, Political Protest, and Civil Society.” NGOs, Political Protest, and Civil Society, 2012, 1–213. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107588561
  10. Bourdin, Sebastien, and Jiwan Tai1. “Abstentionist Voting – Between Disengagement and Protestation in Neglected Areas: A Spatial Analysis of The Paris Metropolis.” International Regional Science Review 45, no. 3 (2022): 263–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/01600176211034131
  11. Brass, Jennifer N. “Do Service Provision NGOs Perform Civil Society Functions? Evidence of NGOs’ Relationship With Democratic Participation.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 51, no. 1 (2022): 148–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764021991671
  12. Brown, Adam R. “Losing to Nobody? Nevada’s ‘None of These Candidates’ Ballot Reform.” Social Science Journal 48, no. 2 (2011): 364–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2010.12.005
  13. Brug, Wouter van der, Meindert Fennema, and Jean Tillie. “Anti-Immigrant Parties in Europe: Ideological or Protest Vote?” European Journal of Political Research 37, no. 8 (2000): 77–102
  14. Camatarri, Stefano. “Piecing the Puzzle Together: A Critical Review of Contemporary Research on Protest Voting.” Political Studies Review 18, no. 4 (2020): 611–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478929919862149
  15. ———. “Voting Against? Toward a Comprehensive Framework for The Assessment of Protest Voting in Europe,” 2017, 118
  16. Castro, Francisca, and Renata Retamal. “Does Electoral Behavior Change after a Protest Cycle? Evidence from Chile and Bolivia.” Electoral Studies 89, no. September 2023 (2024): 102777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102777
  17. Chaniago, Pangwi Syarwi. “Mempertahankan Pilkada Langsung.” Jurnal Polinter : Kajian Politik Dan Hubungan Internasional 2, no. 1 (2016): 33–45. https://doi.org/10.52447/polinter.v2i1.501
  18. Dahl, Robert A. Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. 5 Illustra. United State: Yale Univeristy Press, 1971
  19. Damore, David F., Mallory M. Waters, and Shaun Bowler. “Unhappy, Uninformed, or Uninterested? Understanding ‘None of the Above’ Voting.” Political Research Quarterly 65, no. 4 (2012): 895–907. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912911424286
  20. Deth, Jan W Van. “Studying Political Participation: Towards a Theory of Everything?” European Consortium for Political Research, no. April (2001): 1–19
  21. Djani, Luky, and Philips Vermonte. “Election in Indonesia: The Probletn of Vote-Buying Practices” 42, no. I (n.d.): 5–16
  22. Eichhorn, Kristin, and Eric Linhart. “Estimating the Effect of Competitiveness on Turnout across Regime Types.” Political Studies 69, no. 3 (2021): 602–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321720914645
  23. Ekowati, Endah Yuli. “Pragmatisme Politik: Antara Koalisi, Pencalonan, Dan Calon Tunggal Dalam Pilkada.” Jurnal Transformative 5, no. 1 (2019): 16–37
  24. Galston, William A. “Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education.” Annual Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 217–34. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.217
  25. Harris, Adam S., and Erin Hern. “Taking to the Streets: Protest as an Expression of Political Preference in Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 52, no. 8 (2019): 1169-1199. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018806540
  26. Hill, Lisa. “Voting Turnout, Equality, Liberty and Representation: Epistemic versus Procedural Democracy.” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 19, no. 3 (2016): 283–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2016.1144855
  27. Hutcheson, Derek S. “Disengaged or Disenchanted? The Vote ‘against All’ in Post-Communist Russia.” Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20, no. 1 (2004): 98–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523270410001687127
  28. IDEA. Voter Turnout Trends around the World. International IDEA, 2016
  29. Kang, Won Taek. “Protest Voting and Abstention under Plurality Rule Elections: An Alternative Public Choice Approach.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 16, no. 1 (2004): 79–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629804038903
  30. Konisky, David M. “Legislative Studies Quarterly.” Electoral Studies 3, no. 2 (1984): 217. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(84)90075-1
  31. Kostelka, Filip, and André Blais. “The Chicken and Egg Question: Satisfaction with Democracy and Voter Turnout.” PS - Political Science and Politics 51, no. 2 (2018): 370–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096517002050
  32. Kouba, Karel, and Jakub Lysek. “The Return of Silent Elections: Democracy, Uncontested Elections and Citizen Participation in Czechia.” Democratization 30, no. 8 (2023): 1527–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2023.2246148
  33. Kselman, Daniel, and Emerson Niou. “Protest Voting in Plurality Elections: A Theory of Voter Signaling.” Public Choice 148, no. 5 (2011): 395–418. https://doi.org/DOI 10.1007/sl 1127-010-96
  34. Kushner, Harvey W., Sidney Verba, Norman Nie, and Jae-On Kim. “Participation and Political Equality: A Seven-Nation Comparison.” The Western Political Quarterly 33, no. 3 (1980): 431. https://doi.org/10.2307/447278
  35. Lay, Cornelis, Hasrul Hanif, Ridwan, and Noor Rohman. “The Rise of Uncontested Elections in Indonesia: Case Studies of Pati and Jayapura.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 39, no. 3 (2017): 427–48. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs39-3b
  36. Lijphart, Arend. Patterns of Democracy. First. New York: Yale Univeristy Press, 1999
  37. ———. “Unequal Participation: Democracy’s Unresolved Dilemma.” American Political Science Review 91, no. 1 (1997): 201–31. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203934685
  38. Lioy, Alberto. “‘I Would Prefer Not To’: Establishing the Missing Link between Invalid Voting and Public Protest in Latin America.” Latin American Politics and Society 66, no. 1 (2024): 106–32. https://doi.org/10.1017/lap.2023.29
  39. Marbun, Kevin Nathanael, Jonah Silas, and Tedy Nurzaman. “Gerakan Koko (Kotak Kosong): Studi Kasus Pada Pilkada Humbang Hasundutan Tahun 2020.” Epistemik: Indonesian Journal of Social and Political Science 3, no. 2 (2022): 16–30. https://doi.org/10.57266/epistemik.v3i2.95
  40. Mill, John Stuart. Considerations on Representative Government. Edited by Currin V. Shields. New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1956
  41. Mirzana, Hijrah Adhyanti, Andi Muhammad Aswin Anas, and Aditya Dwi Rohman. “Current Regulations and Anticipations on Criminalizing Black Campaigns for the 2024 Regional Head Elections.” Diponegoro Law Review 9, no. 2 (2024): 258–76. https://doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.9.2.2024.258-276
  42. Mokhonchuk, Bohdan, and Pavlo Romaniuk. “Towards a Legal Framework That Protects Freedom of Expression in Electoral Processes.” Baltic Journal of European Studies 9, no. 3 (2019): 43–62. https://doi.org/10.1515/bjes-2019-0021
  43. Myatt, David P. “A Theory of Protest Voting.” Economic Journal 127, no. 603 (2017): 1527–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12333
  44. Noor, Firman, Sarah Nuraini Siregar, Ridho Imawan Hanafi, and David Sepriwasa. “The Implementation of Direct Local Election (Pilkada) and Money Politics Tendencies: The Current Indonesian Case.” Politik Indonesia: Indonesian Political Science Review 6, no. 2 (2021): 227–46. https://doi.org/10.15294/ipsr.v6i2.31438
  45. Omotola, J Shola, and Gbenga Aiyedogbon. “Political Participation and Voter Turnout in Nigeria’s 2011 Elections.” Journal of African Elections 11, no. 1 (2012): 54–73. https://doi.org/10.20940/jae/2012/v11i1a4
  46. Otjes, Simon, Katherine Stroebe, and Tom Postmes. “When Voting Becomes Protest: Mapping Determinants of Collective Action Onto Voting Behavior.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 11, no. 4 (2020): 513–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619872482
  47. Panjaitan, Maringan, and Simson Berkat Hulu. “Analisis Proses Dan Faktor Penyebab Lahirnya Pasangan Calon Tunggal Versus Kotak Kosong Pada Pilkada Serentak Tahun 2020.” Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Politik 1, no. 2 (2021): 116–30. https://doi.org/10.51622/jispol.v1i2.411
  48. Pickard, Sarah, Benjamin Bowman, and Dena Arya. “‘We Are Radical In Our Kindness’: The Political Socialisation, Motivations, Demands and Protest Actions of Young Environmental Activists in Britain.” Yoth and Globalization 2, no. 2 (2020): 251–80. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/25895745-02020007
  49. Plescia, Carolina, Sylvia Kritzinger, and Shane P. Singh. “Who Would Vote NOTA? Explaining a ‘None of the above’ Choice in Eight Countries.” European Journal of Political Research 62, no. 1 (2023): 118–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12497
  50. Putri, Fayreizha Destika, and Ani Purwanti. “LEGAL POLITICS IN THE AMENDMENT OF REGIONAL HEAD ELECTORAL LAW.” Diponegoro Law Review 3, no. 1 (2018): 122. https://doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.3.1.2018.122-132
  51. Rahman, Rofi Aulia, Iwan Satriawan, and Riwani Marchethy Diaz. “Calon Tunggal Pilkada: Krisis Kepemimpinan Dan Ancaman Bagi Demokrasi [Single Candidate Pilkada: Leadership Crisis and Threat to Democracy].” Jurnal Konstitusi 19, no. 1 (2022): 47–72
  52. Rakhman, Moh. Arief, and Haryadi Haryadi. “Dinamika Peran Ngo Lingkungan Hidup Dalam Arena Politik Lokal Di Provinsi Jambi.” JISIP (Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Pendidikan) 4, no. 4 (2020). https://doi.org/10.58258/jisip.v4i4.1468
  53. Ramadani, Rizki, Muhammad Nur, Wahida, and Muhammad Rinaldi Bima. “Unraveling Legal Antinomies: Key Insights from the 2024 Simultaneous Regional Head Election.” Padjajaran Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (Journal of Law) 12, no. 137 (2025): 137–59. https://doi.org/10.15294/ipsr.v6i2.31438
  54. Ramadani, Rizki, and Farah Syah Rezah. “Regional Head Election During COVID-19 Pandemic: The Antinomy in the Government Policies.” Yuridika 36, no. 1 (2021): 213. https://doi.org/10.20473/ydk.v36i1.23528
  55. Robert Nordström. “The Effects of Uncontested Elections on Legislative Speechmaking: An Analysis of Legislative Performance in Japan’s Prefectural Assemblies.” Electoral Studies 87, no. 5 (2024). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102732
  56. Romli, Lili, and Efriza Efriza. “Single Candidate and the Dynamics of 2020 Indonesian Simultaneous Election: A Perspective on Internal Contestation.” Politik Indonesia: Indonesian Political Science Review 6, no. 3 (2021): 265–88. https://doi.org/10.15294/ipsr.v6i2.31439
  57. Sanjay Kumar, Dr. Ekta Walia. “Analysis of Electronic Voting System in Various Countries.” International Journal of Computer Science Engineering 3, no. 5 (2011): 1825–30
  58. Saunders, Clare. “Anti-Politics in Action? Measurement Dilemmas in the Study of Unconventional Political Participation.” Political Research Quarterly 67, no. 3 (2014): 574–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912914530513
  59. Schumpeter, Joseph A. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (London. George Allen., 1942
  60. Silva, Patrick Cunha, and Brian F. Crisp. “Ballot Spoilage as a Response to Limitations on Choice and Influence.” Party Politics 28, no. 3 (2022): 521–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068821990258
  61. Superti, Chiara. “Vanguard of Discontent : Comparing Individual Blank Voting , Mobilized Protest Voting , and Voting Abstention.” United State, 2015
  62. Suyatno, Suyatno. “Pemilihan Kepala Daerah (Pilkada) Dan Tantangan Demokrasi Lokal Di Indonesia.” Politik Indonesia: Indonesian Political Science Review 1, no. 2 (2016): 212. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpi.v1i2.6586
  63. Thube, Prajakta B. “Understanding Voter Preferences : An Investigation Into Nota Voting Patterns In The 2018 Assembly Election Of Chhattisgarh” 1 (2023): 228–37
  64. Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman, and Henry E. Brady. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995
  65. Verney, Susannah, and Annah Bosco. Protest Elections and Challenger Parties: Italy and Greece in the Economic Crisis. 1st ed. New York: Routledge, 2014
  66. White, S., & McAllister, I. “Voting ‘Against All’ in Postcommunist Russia.” Europe-Asia Studies 60, no. 1 (2008): 67–87. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09668130701760349
  67. Widyasari, Asita, Reyke Anggia Dewi, and Viera Mayasari Sri Rengganis. “Gerakan Politik Pendukung Kotak Kosong: Keterlibatan Civil Society Dalam Pilkada Kabupaten Pati Tahun 2017.” Jurnal PolGov 1, no. 1 (2022): 89–119. https://doi.org/10.22146/polgov.v1i1.5053
  68. Yunus, Nur Rohim. “Calon Tunggal Sebagai Wujud Disfungsi Partai Politik.” ’Adalah 1, no. 4 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15408/adalah.v1i4.8216

Last update:

No citation recorded.

Last update: 2025-09-12 22:42:11

No citation recorded.