DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.11.1.2026.38-67

DETERMINING LEGAL STATUS AND LIABILITY OF AUTONOMOUS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM IN ISLAMIC SMART CONTRACTS

*Ahmad Saparwadi  -  Faculty of Law, Universitas Diponegoro, Indonesia
FX Joko Priyono  -  Faculty of Law, Universitas Diponegoro, Indonesia
Ro'fah Setyowati  -  Faculty of Law, Universitas Diponegoro, Indonesia
Open Access Copyright (c) 2026 Diponegoro Law Review under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0.

Citation Format:
Abstract

The rapid development of artificial intelligence has given rise to autonomous systems capable of performing acts with legal consequences, particularly through smart contracts. This development presents a fundamental challenge to Islamic contract law: whether autonomous AI can possess the legal capacity required to become a contracting party and how liability arising from its acts should be determined. To address these questions, this study employs doctrinal legal research using philosophical and conceptual approaches. Primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials were collected through documentary research and examined using argumentative legal analysis. The findings demonstrate that autonomous AI does not satisfy the requirement of al-‘āqil, namely a rational legal subject possessing full ahliyyah al-adā’ or legal capacity to perform legally valid acts, as attributed to human beings. Nevertheless, this study advances a novel argument based on qiyās al-adnā by analogizing the operational status of autonomous AI to the classical legal position of an authorized slave, or ‘abd ma’dhūn, who acts with the permission of his master. On this basis, autonomous AI may be understood not as an independent legal person, but as a non-human instrument operating within a delegated authority. Consequently, the validity of smart contracts may be recognized through the concept of wakālah muqayyadah, while liability for the AI’s acts is attributed to the principal or muwakkil. In cases involving multiple parties, this study further proposes the integration of kafālah and takāful as mechanisms for allocating and collectively managing liability.

Fulltext View|Download Email colleagues
Keywords: Smart Contract; Autonomous Artificial Intelligence; Islamic Law of Contract; Legal Status; Liability

Article Metrics:

Article Info
Section: Articles
Language : EN
Most cited articles
REGULATIONS FOR E-COMMERCE AGREEMENT ACCORDING TO ICT ACT AND TITLE III OF INDONESIAN CIVIL CODE BRIDGING THE GAPS : A PARADIGMATIC INSIGHT INTO PHILOSOPHY OF LAW MANAGEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND REDEMPTION OF VILLAGE FUND DEMOCRATIC CHALLENGES OF INDONESIA IN THE SOCIAL MEDIA ERA LEGAL PERSPECTIVE ON ASEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY More cited articles
  1. Abdillah, Muhammad ibn Qasim ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazi ibn Al-Gharabili Abu. Fath Al-Qarib al-Mujib Fi Sharh Alfaz al-Taqrib Aw al-Qawl al-Mukhtar Fi Sharh Ghayat al-Ikhtisar. Beirut: Dar ibn Hazm, 2005
  2. Abdullah Thaidi, Hussein ’Azeemi, Muhammad Farooq, Muhammad Firdaus Ab Rahman, and Huzaifa Aliyu Jangebe. “Voidable Financial Contracts (‘Uqud Fasidah) And The Rectification Mechanisms: A Fiqh Juristic Review.” Journal of Fatwa Management and Research 29, no. 2 (May 2024): 58–78. https://doi.org/10.33102/jfatwa.vol29no2.560
  3. Abdul-Latif, Noor Al-Huda Alaa, Abdul-Sattar Ayesh Abd, and Hussam Jassim Mohammed. “The Legitimacy of Relying on Artificial Intelligence and Its Guidelines in Determining Islamic Legal Rulings: A Jurisprudential Study.” Dragoman Journal, no. 19 (July 2025): 336–49. https://doi.org/10.63132/ati.2025.theleg.8166
  4. Afifah, Nurul, and Nur Lailatul Musyafa’ah. “Analisis Hukum Islam Terhadap Jual Beli.” Maliyah : Jurnal Hukum Bisnis Islam 09, no. 1 (2019): 118–37. https://doi.org/10.15642/maliyah.2019.9.1.118-137
  5. Agustianto, Agustianto, and Ampuan Situmeang. “Legal Validity of Smart Contracts for Investment Purposes: Analysis of Indonesia’s Legal Politics and Emerging Challenges.” Masalah-Masalah Hukum 54, no. 2 (July 2025): 269–82. https://doi.org/10.14710/mmh.54.2.2025.269-282
  6. Ahmad, Azlin Alisa, Mat Noor Mat Zain, and Nur Diyana Amanina Zakaria. “The Position of Smart Contracts in the Light of Islamic Contract Theory.” Samarah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Dan Hukum Islam 8, no. 1 (January 2024): 144. https://doi.org/10.22373/sjhk.v8i1.16372
  7. Aldershawi, Mohammad Rachid. “The Nature of Qiyās Al-Adna, Objections about It and Its Applications According to the Scholars of Uṣūl al-Fiqh.” Cumhuriyet Ilahiyat Dergisi 27, no. 1 (2023): 136–49. https://doi.org/10.18505/cuid.1249656
  8. Alfulij, Norah, Manal Kasabi, Hanadi Aldeeb, and Hanouf Aldeeb. “Medical Errors in Robotic Surgery in Islamic Jurisprudence and Law.” 2024 Seventh International Women in Data Science Conference at Prince Sultan University (WiDS PSU), March 3, 2024, 116–120. https://doi.org/10.1109/WiDS-PSU61003.2024.00036
  9. Ali, Zainuddin. Metode Penelitian Hukum. 1st ed. 1. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika, 2022
  10. Al-Ifan, B. M. “Contract Formation Methods in E-Commerce from Islamic Perspective.” 2013 5th International Conference on Information and Communication Technology for the Muslim World (ICT4M), March 2013, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICT4M.2013.6518900
  11. AL-Khalaileh, Lana, Tareq Al-Billeh, Abdul Salam Al-Findi, and Odai Al-Hailat. “Smart Contracts in Light of the Provisions of Islamic Jurisprudence and the Civil Law of Jordan.” Corporate Law & Governance Review 7, no. 3 (2025): 180–89. https://doi.org/10.22495/clgrv7i3sip3
  12. Anonim. “AI ‘boy’ Granted Residency in Central Tokyo.” The Straits Times (Tokyo), November 6, 2017. https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/11/06/ai-boy-granted-residency-in-central-tokyo
  13. As-Suyuti, Imam Jalaluddin Abdurrahman. Al-Asybah Wa al-Nazair. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah, 1983
  14. As-Syafi’i, Muhammad bin Idris. Al-Risalah. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah, n.d
  15. Atiyah, Ghassan Adhab, Nazura Abdul Manap, Ahmed Ismael Ibrahim, and Abdur Rahman. “Legitimacy of Smart Contracts from the Perspective of Islamic Law: A Case Study of Blockchain Transactions.” Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 9, no. 1 (May 2024): 155. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v9i1.8726
  16. Azmi, Ida Madieha Abdul Ghani, and Mahyuddin Daud. “Liability Gap, Personhood Theories and Effective AI Legal Framework in the GCC Countries: Shariah as the Thread That Binds.” In Political Economy of the Middle East, Part F516, 241–60. Palgrave Macmillan, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4020-1_11
  17. Bashayreh, Mohammad H., Amer Tabbara, and Fadi N. Sibai. “The Need for a Legal Standard of Care in the AI Environment.” Sriwijaya Law Review 7, no. 1 (2023): 73–86. https://doi.org/10.28946/slrev.vol7.iss1.1507.pp73-86
  18. Basti, Gianfranco, and Giuseppe Vitiello. “Deep Learning Opacity, and the Ethical Accountability of AI Systems. A New Perspective.” In The Logic of Social Practices II, vol. 68, edited by Robert Lowe and Raffaela Giovagnoli, 21–73. Springer, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39113-2_2
  19. Bayamlioglu, Emre. “Intelligent Agents and Their Legal Status.” Ankara Bar Review 1, no. 1 (January 2008): 46–54. https://izlik.org/JA56LU57ZT
  20. Britannica Editors. “Chinese Room Argument.” Encyclopedia Britannica, March 13, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-room-argument
  21. Budi H., I. Gusti Kade. Artificial Intelligence (Konsep, Potensi Masalah, Hingga Pertanggungjawaban Pidana). 1st ed. 1. Depok: Rajawali Press, 2022
  22. Calderonio, Vincenzo. “Cause and effect of artificial intelligence: on the legal nature of AI output and its impact on the liability regime.” Rivista Italiana di Informatica e Diritto 8, no. 1 (2026): 19. https://doi.org/10.32091/RIID0267
  23. Covarrubias, Jersain Llamas, and Celina Díaz Michel. “Guiding Principles to Address Cybersecurity Requirements for High-Risk AI Systems Under the AI Act.” In Reshaping: Criminology with AI, edited by Fernando Ortiz-Rodriguez, Shishir Kumar Shandilya, Cynthia Marisol Vargas Orozco, Juana Iris Ibarra Costilla, and Jersain Llamas Covarrubias, 35–62. New York: IGI Global, 2025. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-8871-6.
  24. Deebak, B. D., and Fadi AL-Turjman. “Privacy-Preserving in Smart Contracts Using Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence for Cyber Risk Measurements.” Journal of Information Security and Applications 58 (May 2021): 102749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jisa.2021.102749
  25. Dewi, Gemala, Wirdyaningsih, and Yeni Salma Barlinti. Hukum Perikatan Islam Di Indonesia. 5th ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2018
  26. Diantha, I. Made Pasek. Metode Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dalam Justifikasi Teori Hukum. 1. Jakarta: Kencana, 2016
  27. Djazuli, A. Kaidah-Kaidah Fikih: Kaidah-Kaidah Hukum Islam Dalam Menyelesaikan Masalah-Masalah Praktis. Jakarta: Kencana, 2019
  28. Dyrkolbotn, Sjur, Truls Pedersen, and Marija Slavkovik. “Classifying the Autonomy and Morality of Artificial Agents.” CEUR Workshop Proceedings 2051 (2018): 67–83. https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3607170
  29. E. Haikcal Firdan El-Hady, and M. Fauzan Zenrif. “Pandangan Islam Terhadap Etika Kecerdasan Buatan (Artificial Intelligence) Dalam Kehidupan Sehari-Hari.” NUANSA: Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu Sosial dan Keagamaan Islam 21, no. 2 (December 2024): 84–98. https://doi.org/10.19105/nuansa.v21i2.16613
  30. Firlej, Mikolaj. “Autonomous Systems, Legal Boundaries.” In Elgar Concise Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence and the Law, edited by Ryan Abbott and Elizabeth Rothman, 48–51. Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2025. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035336906.00018
  31. Fontana, Gino, and Nicola Pierpaolo Barbuzzi. “Legal aspects of electronic agents: smart contract, algorithmic personhood, and computational logic.” Rivista Italiana di Informatica e Diritto 7, no. 2 (2025): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.32091/RIID0235
  32. Ghazali, Nasrun Mohamad, Mohd. Fuad Md. Sawari, Bouhedda Ghalia, and Syed Musa Syed Jaafar Alhabshi. “Fiqh Maxim of ‘al-Ghurm Bi al-Ghunm’: A Critique on the Interpretation of the Maxim Relating to Risk-Return Concept in Islamic Banking and Finance.” ISRA International Journal of Islamic Finance 16, no. 2 (2024): 4–19. https://doi.org/10.55188/ijif.v16i2.412
  33. Ghoochani Gharawi, Mohammad Amin. “The Ethics of Slavery in Islam: Addressing the Doubts.” Religious Inquiries 13, no. 2 (2024): 115–30. https://doi.org/10.22034/ri.2024.389542.1722
  34. Habib, Zainal. “Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Maqāṣid Al-Sharīa’s Perspective.” KARSA: Jurnal Sosial Dan Budaya Keislaman (Journal of Social and Islamic Culture) 33, no. 1 (June 2025): 105–34. https://ejournal.uinmadura.ac.id/index.php/karsa/article/view/19617
  35. Hakli, Raul, and Pekka Mäkelä. “Robots, Autonomy, and Responsibility.” In What Social Robots Can and Should Do, vol. 290, edited by Johanna Seibt, Marco Nørskov, and Søren Schack Andersen, 145–54. IOS Press Ebook, 2016. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-708-5-145
  36. Hassan, Hafiz Ali. “Takaful Models: Origin, Progression and Future.” Journal of Islamic Marketing 11, no. 6 (2020): 1801–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-04-2018-0078
  37. Hidayat, Enang. Kaidah-Kaidah Fikih Muamalah. 1. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2019
  38. Hidayati, Tri, Muhammad Syarif Hidayatullah, Parman Komarudin, and Atika Atika. “Digitalization of Islamic Finance: Epistemological Study of the National Sharia Board-Indonesian Council of Ulama’s Fatwa.” Al-Ahkam 33, no. 2 (October 2023): 255–78. https://doi.org/10.21580/ahkam.2023.33.2.17324
  39. Hufron, Hufron, Sultoni Fikri, Syofyan Hadi, Ievgenii Shulga, and Agung Satryo Wibowo. “Digital Platform Power Play: Indonesian and European Union Law Perspective.” Lex Scientia Law Review 8, no. 2 (November 2024): 707–42. https://doi.org/10.15294/lslr.v8i2.13669
  40. Hussein, Shuq, and Ali Al-Obeidi. “Robotics and AI Systems: Legal Personality for AI System Under UAE Law and Islamic Jurisprudence.” December 6, 2023, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/acit58888.2023.10453710
  41. Ibrahim, Johnny. Teori Dan Metodologi Penelitian Hukum Normatif. Revision. 3. Malang: Bayumedia Publishing, 2007
  42. Ikram, Nur Adlin Hanisah Shahul, and Mohd Yazid Zul Kepli. “Establishing Legal Rights and Liabilities for Artificial Intelligence.” IIUM Law Journal 26, no. 1 (June 2018): 161–161. https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumlj.v26i1.382
  43. Indonesian Council of Ulama. Fatwa No. 1 of 2004 on Interest. Jakarta: Indonesian Council of Ulama, 2004. https://mui.or.id/baca/fatwa/hukum-bunga-interestfaidah
  44. ITWatchIT. “Company Appoints Artificial Intelligence as Member of Leadership Team.” ITWatchIT, October 18, 2016. https://itwatchit.com/company-appoints-artificial-intelligence-member-leadership-team/
  45. Katznelson, Gali. “AI Citizen Sophia and Legal Status.” The Petrie-Floam Center (Health Law Policy, Biotechnology and Bioethics at Harvard Law School (Cambridge), November 9, 2017. https://petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/11/09/ai-citizen-sophia-and-legal-status/
  46. Khalaf, Abdul Wahab. Ilmu Ushulul Fiqh. Vol. 2, translated by Masdar Helmy. Cairo: Da’wah Islamiah Syabab al-Azhar, 1968. Reprint, Bandung: Gema Risalah Press, 1997
  47. Kiejnich-Kruk, Karolina. “Obligations of Importers, Distributors and Deployers of High-Risk AI Systems under the AI Act.” Ius Novum 19, no. 4 (December 2025): 121–40. https://doi.org/10.2478/in-2025-0040
  48. Kirillova, Elena Anatolyevna, Varvara Vladimirovna Bogdan, Igor B. Lagutin, and Evgeniy Dmitrievich Gorevoy. “Legal Status of Smart Contracts: Features, Role, Significance.” Juridicas CUC 15, no. 1 (2019): 285–300. https://doi.org/10.17981/juridcuc.15.1.2019.11
  49. Krause, David. “The EU AI Act and the Future of AI Governance: Implications for U.S. Firms and Policymakers.” In Artificial Intelligence and the Rule of Law: The Age of Legal Tech and Digital Governance in a Fractured Digital World, edited by Armando Aliu, 239–68. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-97389-5_9
  50. Kuru, Fatma. “Kitabat (Mukataba) Contract in Islamic Law and Its Practice in the Ottoman Empire.” Ankara Universitesi Ilahiyat Fakultesi Dergisi 64, no. 2 (2023): 407–40. https://doi.org/10.33227/auifd.1297359
  51. Laukyte, Migle. “AI as a Legal Person.” The 17th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ICAIL 2019, 2019, 209–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3322640.3326701
  52. Lewis, Mervyn K. “The Evolution of Takaful Products.” In Islamic Capital Markets: Products and Strategies, edited by M. Kabir Hassan and Michael Mahlknecht, 185–99. Wiley, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119206040.ch9
  53. M. Zein, Satria Efendi. Ushul Fiqh. 7. Jakarta: Kencana, 2017
  54. Mafaid, Ahmad. “Kecakapan Menerima Hak Dan Melakukan Perbuatan Hukum Dalam Tinjauan Ushul Fiqh.” El-Ahli : Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Islam 1, no. 1 (July 2020): 88–102. https://doi.org/10.56874/el-ahli.v1i1.66
  55. Mansor, Mahayaudin M., Nurain Ibrahim, Noor Fadhilah Ahmad Radi, Nadirah Abdul Rahim, Syarul Heiry Yahaya, Mohd Aftar Abu Bakar, and Roslinazairimah Zakaria. “Discrepancy and Thematic Bibliometric Analyses of the Remaining Limitations in Artificial Intelligence.” IEEE International Conference on Computing (ICOCO), 2024, 485–90. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOCO62848.2024.10928174
  56. Melnikova, E., and I. Surov. “Legal Status of Artificial Intelligence from Quantum-Theoretic Perspective.” BRICS Law Journal 10, no. 4 (December 2023): 5–34. https://doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2023-10-4-5-34
  57. Mueck, Markus, Christophe Gaie, and Dimitris C. Gkikas. “Introduction to the European Artificial Intelligence Act.” In European Digital Regulations, vol. 265, edited by Markus Mueck and Christophe Gaie, 53–90. Springer, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80809-8_3
  58. Muhammad, Mohd Zulkifli, Fatihah Mohd, Tamrin Amboala, Hanudin Amin, Wan Fatin Fatihah Yahya, Muhammad Khalilur Rahman, Azila Jaini, and Mohammad Salim Al-Rawashdeh. “Shariah-Compliant E-Payment Framework in Malaysia: Integrating Fiqh, Digital Security and Regulatory Governance.” Journal of Fatwa Management and Research 30, no. 2 (May 2025): 34–54. https://doi.org/10.33102/jfatwa.vol30no2.638
  59. Munawar. “The Legality of Smart Contract in the Perspectives of Indonesian Law and Islamic Law.” Al-Istinbath : Jurnal Hukum Islam 7, no. 1 (May 2022): 269. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v7i1.4140
  60. Mutairi, Rayan. “The Legal Status and Inheritance Rights of Sophia The Robot: The Case of Citizenship in Saudi Arabia.” International Symposium On Law, Justice, And Emerging Global Challenges (North Macedonia), January 21, 2025, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.55843/ISL2025symp62am
  61. Nahrowi, Nahrowi. “Penentuan Dewasa Menurut Hukum Islam dan Berbagai Disiplin Hukum.” Kordinat: Jurnal Komunikasi antar Perguruan Tinggi Agama Islam 15, no. 2 (October 2016): 253–74. https://doi.org/10.15408/kordinat.v15i2.6333
  62. National Sharia Council-Indonesian Council of Ulama. Fatwa No. 135 of 2020 on Shares. Jakarta: Indonesian Council of Ulama, 2020. https://dsnmui.or.id/kategori/fatwa/page/4/. pdf:
  63. Neuwirth, Rostam J. “Prohibited Artificial Intelligence Practices Revisited.” In The European Artificial Intelligence Act, vol. 78, edited by Vera Lucia Raposo, 131–55. Law, Governance and Technology Series. Springer Nature, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-98406-8_6
  64. Ouyang, Liwei, Wenwen Zhang, and Fei-Yue Wang. “Intelligent Contracts: Making Smart Contracts Smart for Blockchain Intelligence.” Computers and Electrical Engineering 104 (December 2022): 108421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2022.108421
  65. Padovan, Paulo Henrique, Clarice Marinho Martins, and Chris Reed. “Black Is the New Orange: How to Determine AI Liability.” Artificial Intelligence and Law 31, no. 1 (2023): 133–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-022-09308-9
  66. Pagallo, Ugo. “Vital, Sophia, and Co.—The Quest for the Legal Personhood of Robots.” Information 9, no. 9 (September 2018): 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/info9090230
  67. Papadouli, Vasiliki. “The Role of the Autonomous Machines at the Conclusion of a Contract: Contractual Responsibility According to Current Rules of Private Law and Prospects.” In Artificial Intelligence and Normative Challenges: International and Comparative Legal Perspectives, edited by Angelos Kornilakis, Georgios Nouskalis, Vassilis Pergantis, and Themistoklis Tzimas, 65–84. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41081-9_5
  68. Priancha, Angga, Ardia Khairunnisa, Tasya Caroline, and Gilang Sephia. “Rethinking ‘Electronic Agent’ Terminology In the Law on Electronic Information and Transaction from the Perspective of Indonesian Lastgeving Law.” Mimbar Hukum 34, no. 2 (2022): 378–402. https://doi.org/10.22146/mh.v34i2.3864
  69. Priyono, Ery Agus, Olawale Olufemi Akinrinde, Muhammad Najiib Al Fithri, and Muhamad Azhar. “Digital Transformation of Contract Law: Legal Certainty and Human Rights Protection in AI-Based Contracts.” Jurnal Suara Hukum 8, no. 1 (March 2026): 133–66. https://journal.unesa.ac.id/index.php/suarahukum/article/view/50431
  70. Pusat Pengkajian Hukum Islam dan Masyarakat Madani. Kompilasi Hukum Ekonomi Syariah. Revisi. Vol. 3. Jakarta: Kencana, 2017
  71. Ramli, Mohd Hilmi. “Al-Taftāzānī’s Discussion on The Nature of Man Sine Qua Non (Essential) to The Mukallaf in The Science of Uṣūl Al-Fiqh.” Jurnal Fiqh 22, no. 1 (June 2025): 108–33. https://doi.org/10.22452/fiqh.vol22no1.4
  72. Rusyd, Ibnu. Bidayatul Mujtahid. Vol. 2, edited by Ahmad Abu Al-Majdi. Surakarta: Pustaka Azzam, 2007
  73. Saleh, Abdulmajid Obaid Hasan, Alaa Saleh Halawani, and Mohammad Abdelhamid Salem Qatawneh. “The Shariah Framework for Smart Contracts, an Original Analytical Study.” Lect. Notes Networks Syst. 487 (2023): 1033–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08084-5_73
  74. Scholten, Paul. De Structuur Der Rechtswetenshap. Translated by Bernard Arief Sidharta. 4. Bandung: PT. Alumni, 2013
  75. Seng, Daniel, and Tan Cheng Han. “Agency Law and AI.” In The Cambridge Handbook of Private Law and Artificial Intelligence, edited by Ernest Lim and Phillip Morgan, 250–69. Cambridge Law Handbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108980197.013
  76. As Shabuni, Muhammad Ali. Al-Fiqhu al-Syar’i al-Muyassar Juz 2. Beirut: Al-Maktabah al-‘Ashriyyah, 2012
  77. Siregar, Hariman Surya, and Koko Khoerudin. Fikih Muamalah (Teori Dan Implementasi). 1. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya, 2019
  78. Sitiris, Miszairi, and Saheed Abdullahi Busari. “The Legal Capacity (Al-Ahliyyah) of Artificial Intelligence from an Islamic Jurisprudential Perspective.” Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law 12, no. 1 (April 2024): 31–42. https://doi.org/10.33102/mjsl.vol12no1.453
  79. Soemitra, Andi. Hukum Ekonomi Syariah Dan Fiqh Muamalah Di Lembaga Keuangan Dan Bisnis Kontemporer. 1. Jakarta: Kencana, 2019
  80. Soualhi, Younes, and Abdulmajid Obaid Hasan Saleh. “Smart Contracts and Their Application Prospects in Social Banking: A Maqasid Jurisprudential Perspective.” Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law 12, no. 2 (2024): 490–510. https://doi.org/10.33102/mjsl.vol12no2.599
  81. Susanto, Anthon F. Penelitian Hukum Transformatif-Partisipatoris. Malang: Setara Press, 2015
  82. Syaichoni, Ahmad. Fikih Muamalah (Konsep Dasar Transaksi Bisnis Islam). 1. Yogyakarta: CV Bintang Semesta Media, 2023
  83. Syarifuddin, Amir. Ushul Fiqh 1. 1st ed. Jakarta: Kencana, 2011
  84. Szostek, Dariusz, and Rafał Tomasz Prabucki. “High-Risk AI Systems.” In The European Artificial Intelligence Act, vol. 78, edited by Vera Lucia Raposo, 157–80. Law, Governance and Technology Series. Springer Nature, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-98406-8_7
  85. Tirmidzi, Muhammad ibn ’Isa al. Jami’ al-Tirmidzi. 3. Mesir: Mustafa al-bab al halabi, 1975
  86. Truntsevsky, Yuriy, and Vyacheslav Sevalnev. “Smart Contract: From Definition to Certainty.” Legal Issues in the Digital Age 2, no. 1 (May 2021): 100–122. https://doi.org/10.17323/2713-2749.2021.1.100.122
  87. United Nations Commission on International Trade Law. UNCITRAL Model Law on Automated Contracting with Guide to Enactment. Vienna: United Nations, 2025. https://uncitral.un.org/sites/default/files/2424674e-mlautomatedcontracting-ebook.pdf
  88. Weller, Chris. “A Robot Has Just Been Granted Citizenship of Saudi Arabia.” World Economic Forum (Riyadh), October 27, 2017. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2017/10/a-robot-has-just-been-granted-citizenship-of-saudi-arabia/
  89. Witro, Doli, Neni Nuraeni, and Muhammad Fauzan Januri. “Classification of Aqad In Sharia Economic Law.” Nurani: Jurnal Kajian Syari’ah Dan Masyarakat 21, no. 1 (June 2021): 55–68. https://doi.org/10.19109/nurani.v21i1.8387
  90. Yapryntsev, I. M., I. R. Khmelevskoi, and N. A. Kalashnikov. “AI through the Prism of Its Legal Personality: Basic Characteristics.” Kutafin Law Review 12, no. 2 (July 2025): 362–83. https://doi.org/10.17803/2713-0533.2025.2.32.362-383
  91. Yasardin, Yasardin, and Syuhood B. Kooria. “Revisiting the Compilation of Islamic Economic Law in Indonesia: Legal Challenges and Pathways to Harmonization.” JURIS (Jurnal Ilmiah Syariah) 24, no. 1 (June 2025): 127–36. https://doi.org/10.31958/juris.v24i1.13736
  92. Zaid, Saud M. Alholiby Albin, Mubarak M. Alkhaldi, and Mohammad A. Alghamdi. “The Zakatability of AI: A Dual Analysis from Sharia and Saudi Law.” Journal of Posthumanism 5, no. 5 (May 2025): 2357–69. https://doi.org/10.63332/joph.v5i5.1621
  93. Zhai, Xiaoshui. “Autonomous Systems: How Should Contract Law Treat Such Autonomy?” Information & Communications Technology Law, February 12, 2026, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2026.2624924
  94. Ziemianin, Karolina. “Civil Legal Personality of Artificial Intelligence. Future or Utopia?” Internet Policy Review 10, no. 2 (2021): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.14763/2021.2.1544
  95. Zou, Weiqin, David Lo, Pavneet Singh Kochhar, Xuan-Bach Dinh Le, Xin Xia, Yang Feng, Zhenyu Chen, and Baowen Xu. “Smart Contract Development: Challenges and Opportunities.” IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 47, no. 10 (October 2021): 2084–106. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSE.2019.2942301

Last update:

No citation recorded.

Last update: 2026-07-27 18:10:09

No citation recorded.